Classical Managment Essay Example for Free

Classical Managment Essay Historical Foundations of management have been around for years and were first introduced by Fayol around the turn of the century . This essay will discuss three main points and questions around management, the first question will cover how modern management practices have evolved from the â€Å"classical approaches to management†. The second question will cover the challenges contemporary managers face in 2013 compared to managers in the era of the classical approaches and the third question will be around comparing and contrasting bureaucratic management to a style of management I have been faced with. This discussion will pay particular attention to Frederick Taylor’s scientific approach to management. How Modern Management Practices have evolved from the â€Å"Classical Approaches to Management†? The classical management approaches focus on developing universal principles for use in various management situations. There are 3 three major theories within the classical approaches. Scientific management, administrative principles and Bureaucratic organisations and these theories are still widely used in management today. Modern management approaches focus on the systems view of organisations and contingency thinking in a dynamic and complex environment. The modern management approaches to management grew directly from foundations established by the classical approaches. It has been proven in today’s working world you need to have a mix of the classical approaches and the modern management approaches to succeed in today’s environment. According to McDonalds case study the restaurants operate on classical management theory – there are elements of â€Å"scientific management from a former era (to maintain efficiency), as well as up-to-the minute human relations approaches to maintain the motivation of the â€Å"crew†. . Challenges contemporary mangers face in 2013 compared to mangers in the era of Classical approaches. A contemporary business environment refers to management trends in the 21st century – the year 2000 to now. . Globalisation plays a missive part in the changing challenges for contemporary mangers. Most companies move into international markets and by moving into different international markets there are different rules and regulations that need to be learned when doing business. It was Cited in that it is important for global organisations to employ people from other cultures who understand the customs and traditions of other countries and to deal appropriately with customers. This then brings different beliefs and cultural beliefs into the work place and contemporary mangers need to understand the needs of their employees. In today’s working environment multiculitlism is a growing factor and plays a big part in contemporary mangers needing to adapt to different management styles to help create the rights at work for its people, for example if your religion requires you to pray at certain times of the day, a manger would need to respect these religious beliefs and allow you to do so, back in the time if the classical era this would have not even been considered. It wasn’t until 1920s; an emphasis on the human side in the workplace began to establish its influence on management thinking . It was also cited in people are interacting with others who are different from themselves with biological, political, religious or cultural differences. This causes for the contemporary mangers to learn and adapted to new skills. If we look at the evolution of management practices over a period of time off from the era to now. It has changed dramatically and there are more practices to consider and adapt as a contemporary manger. Referring below outlines the evolution of management practices from the era to now and how much more a contemporary manger needs to consider then a manger in the era had to. Evolution of management practices Period /YearClassical Approaches 1890 Systemic Management 1900Bureaucratic Management 1920Administrative Management 1930Human Relations 1940Behavioural perspective Contemporary Approaches 1940Quantitative Management 1950Organisational Behaviour 1960System Theory 1970Contingency Theory 1990Total Quality Management 1990Learning Organisation 2000Business Reengineering CurrentStrategic Management Diversify in the workplace has also grown from the 1890’s to now. The amount of women workers in the work place has doubled over time; women in particular needs are diifernm It was cited in the journal article that Daft and Samson (2009) argued that rganisations are encountering new challenges to deal with diversity as more women and people from minority backgrounds are entering the workforce in the contemporary business environment PART B (some personal reflections) Scientific Management compared and contrast with current management style of what I have been faced with. Fredrick W. Taylor published the Scientific management emphasises careful selection and training of workers, and supervisory support. It has four guiding action principles: 1. if you check your presentation guidelines on page 7 of the Subject Outline and the extra information provided in Resources folder under Assignment Help in MGT100 Interact site you will see that subheadings are quite appropriate in business assessments. You could set you work out with meaningful headings to help guide the reader through your discussion. For example,  · INTRODUCTION (introducing both parts of the discussion)  · PART A (optional heading) SUBHEADING 1 SUBHEADING 2 SUBHEADING 3  · PART B (optional heading) SUBHEADING 4 (e.g. some personal reflections . . )  · CONCLUSION (concluding both parts of the discussion)  · REFERENCES If your writing is very clear then it may not be necessary to include the Part A B headings. Your primary responsibility is to make sure that your essay is clear and understandable to the reader. The best way to ensure this is to get someone else to read your work (preferably not a business student) before you submit. Question 2: I chose option two for the essay, Historical Foundations to Management. When considering ‘classical approaches to management’ is it suggestible that I mention (or cover) all theories, or just a select few which represent a cross section of the range of classical theories? Or, should I focus on only one or two theories? Suggestion: When in doubt put yourself in the reader’s position. The question asks about ‘classical approaches’, think about what you would want to know if you were reading a response to this question from a position of little or no knowledge of management theory. Also think about how many words you have available. That is, the more theories you include the less adequately they will be explained. It’s up to you to work out the balance between scope and detail. You can get away with most things if you explain to the reader in either the Introduction or very early on what your intended scope is (e.g ‘This discussion will pay particular attention to Fayol’s fourteen principles and Taylor’s four principles of management . . . etc). Then the reader doesnt get disappointed to find his or her favourite theory has been omitted. This is what I think I would be silently asking myself:  · What is meant by a ‘classical approach’? and by implication . . .  · How is a ‘classical approach’ different to other approaches?  · How is the writer (you) going to make his case that classical approaches are still/not relevant today? Asking these questions would lead you to the sort of answers you are looking for with regard to ‘required theoretical content’:  · You really need to mention at least briefly the three big names of Taylor, Fayol, and Weber  · You really need to give a nod to the other big approaches such as quantitative, HRM, contemporary  · This is your choice and will be determined by personal interest, the sorts of case examples you use and word limits. You need to include enough material to be convincing. You won’t have to look very far with any of those big names to make a case. I imagine you will only have space for about 2 specific theories Carroll, S. J Gillen D. J. (1984). The Classical Management Functions: Are They Really Outdated? P132-136. doi:10.5465/AMBPP.1984.4978715 Ambang, T, (2009). Challenges of contemporary management in Papua New Guinea, 10(2), p1-16.

Relationship Between Transformational Leadership And Employee Wellbeing Management Essay

Relationship Between Transformational Leadership And Employee Wellbeing Management Essay Leadership has been defined by various authors in different ways. According to Barron and Greenberg (1990 cited in Rollinson, 2005) leadership is the name of the process where a person influences a group of other persons or members and motivates them for the achievement of some specified group or organizational objectives. According to Rollinson (2005)in other words leadership can be defined as a process in which a person interact with his followers in such a way that he influences the actions of his followers in a non-coercive way to achieve specified goals and objectives. To manipulate the efforts of individuals in most effective way it is the leader who plays an important role. An intellectual and a dynamic leader provides personal attention to his employees, provides encouragement of specific behaviour in workers through personal stimulation, empowers them in terms of decision making and problem solving (Sashkin and Rosenbach 1993, cited in Nielsen et al ,2009). In addition employees well being at work both physically and psychologically is the most important factor for the success and achievement of organizational goals. These are the transformational leaders who make sure about the interests of their employees, their wellbeing in terms of physical and mental health and about their satisfaction of the job (Bass, 1999). Transformational Leadership: Transformational leaders are the leaders who make sure and protect the interests of their employees, subordinates and colleagues and they broaden and elevate their interests as well. They create motivation and attention amongst their followers to the purpose of their group and/or organization in such a way that they give preference to the interests of their organization over their own personal interests. (Nielsen et al, 2009). The term Transformational Leadership was used by Burns in 1978. According to Bass (1985, cited in Humphreys, 2005) transformational leaders create enthusiasm and awareness in their employees in a way that they struggle more and work hard effectively for the betterment and success of their organization and for the achievement of their organizational objectives. They engage themselves with their followers in such a way that they enhance each other capability and moral in the terms so that the goals of each person come together in the best interest of the organization. According to Bass (1990) the principle of the transformational behaviour is that the relationship between the leader and the follower should not be based on something like personal interest and value system, so acting upon this principle the transformational leader keeps his followers unite and in addition he transforms the objectives of his followers in most positive way towards the success of organization. He influences his employees by demonstrating; Individual Consideration Intellectual Stimulation Inspirational Motivation Charisma Avolio (et al 1991, cited in Humphreys, 2005) explains the above qualities of leadership as follows: Individual Consideration: The most important factor of the individual consideration is that the transformational leaders understand the needs of their employees and they know that these needs also change with the passage of time, and they keep themselves aware about any kind of differences amongst the employees. They also keep a close eye on the performance of their followers and on any kind of hurdles that may distract the efficiency of the individuals, and they take effective measures to remove these kinds of obstacles. They act as a guide and mentor to each individual and they advise them in order to improve their efficiency. Intellectual Stimulation: By demonstrating intellectual stimulations the transformational leaders convince their followers to change and adopt new ways and strategies in solving the problems and difficulties faced by each individual, by enhancing their behaviour, attitude and values, and for this purpose they give solid reasons to followers so that they can change their thinking about the issues regarding their work capability. Inspirational Motivation: The quality of inspiration and motivation in a transformational leader is the image which is created in the eyes of followers by demonstrating personal consideration and intellectual stimulation. The transformational leaders inspire and motivate employees to achieve the organizational goals by focussing the important factors in a very easy and simple way. This behaviour of the transformational leaders maximizes the confidence and encouragement of the staff which help the employees in tackling the problems in the time of crises. Charisma: Transformational leaders are the persons who are given respect and honour by their followers and also the followers show confidence and commitment upon them. It is a crucial step for the transformational leader to achieve a charisma in the eyes of the followers (Bass, 1990). The charismatic behaviour of the transformational leadership is depicted by Bass as a behavioural and attributed idealized influence which is considered to be created by individual consideration, intellectual stimulation and inspirational motivation along with trust and emotional relation with the leader (Avolio et al., 1991, cited in Humphreys, 2005). Relationship between Transformational Leadership and Employee Wellbeing: Close relationships have been reported between Transformational Leadership and employee wellbeing and job satisfaction. The term wellbeing includes physical, mental, social, intellectual and spiritual health as well. The relationship between the leader and the employee is a very important factor in employee wellbeing. Employee Wellbeing: According to CIPD Change Agenda creating an environment to promote a state of contentment which allows an employee to flourish and achieve their full potential for the benefit of themselves and their organization. In an organization having a transformation leadership style, there is always a close and strong relationship between the employees and the managers and thats why the level of employee wellbeing remains high. Transformational leader keep themselves aware about the workload on a group or on an individual, their likes and dislikes and their need etc and in this way they are more likely to create an environment in the organization where a high level of individual and group wellbeing is achieved. Employees wellbeing at work: The wellbeing of employees at work is the most essential factor for the achievement of organizational goals and all the organizations try their best to be in a healthy environment. Employers are realizing now that they should have a wellbeing strategy to improve mental and physical health of their staff. Most of employers now provide private health insurance and some employers provide also access to gym and counselling. If the employees in an organization are physically, mentally and socially healthy then this must contribute to their success. On the other hand the imbalance of work load, threat of insecurity, irritative relation amongst the employees or with the line managers and a lack of empowerment will result a high rate of stress, absence, inefficient staff performance, and concerns about job satisfaction. According to CIPD absence management survey (2006, cited in CIPD, 2007) the work related stress and mental conditions are the main reasons of employees absence and according to that survey the average rate of absence is eight days per employee per year which costs the organizations about  £600 per year per employee. According to ESRC (2006) report around 28 million days are lost every year due to staff absence. It is estimated that stress costs businesses about  £3.8 billion per year (Health and Safety Executive, 2006, cited in Baptiste, 2007 ). The organizations that have realized that the health and safety, employee wellbeing and their satisfaction about job is the most important factor in terms of good performance and goal achievements and they have made investments in employees wellbeing these institutions are enjoying the advantages of their healthy and confident workforce towards their organizational success. (Peccie, 2004, cited in Baptiste, 2007). Under the transformational leadership style the employees in an organization are given the opportunity to apply and enhance their knowledge and skills to get the job done. Institute of Directors discovered that wellbeing satisfy the small businesses in terms of client requirements, controlling insurance charges, increase production and it also satisfies, attracts and motivates the staff (IOD 2006, cited in CIPD, 2007). According to Baptiste In the organizations where the employees have a voice and they have provided with support and encouragement from their leaders they work more effectively and their positive behaviour and commitment results in best performance and productivity. HRM practices which create a relationship between leadership and employees, and help in developing trust and engagement, also contribute towards the effective attitude of employees and ensure wellbeing at work which consequently results in better performance. According to Ilies, R., Morgeson, P. F., Nahragang, J, D.,(2005) the positive organizational scholarships ensure the effective organizational behaviour which results in enhanced employees wellbeing and is distinguished from traditional organizational studies in that it seeks to understand what represents and approaches the best of the human condition . The recent theories and discussions regarding the positive and ethical leadership in organizations have induced to a combine effort to ensure all the effective approaches to leadership. Within the context of increasingly important field of employee wellbeing and the positive characteristics of human functioning like positive emotions, hope, struggle for the achievements of organizational objectives for the social and mental health and wellbeing. According to Avolio Gardner, 2005 this combine effort consequently results in the positive leadership approaches like transformational, inspirational, charismatic leadership. These kinds of le aders are trustworthy and they keep themselves aware about their own values as well as they modify their employees thinking and objectives in terms of positive organizational context. Trainings to manage workplace stress: Shuttleworth, A., (2005) states, since its the duty of the employers to take care of their workers and which is mentioned in the Health and Safety at Work Regulation 1999, the HSE draft management standard has revealed the accountability cases that employers face due to workplace stress. In February 2000 a former post office manager made a claim against stress related sickness due to extra work load and he got  £175000. Employers are now engaged in essential trainings to overcome stress related issues at workplace such as bullying, to enhance empowerment, improve resilience to stress. Furthermore the organizations are emphasising the senior management and leaders to be actively participate to support and develop the initiative and its design. Role of Transformational Leader in Combating Employees Negativity: According to Avey, J, B., (2008) now a day in the print media special attention has been paid to the soaring figures of employees working hours and to the level of its stress. It is the result of the new global market trends in the world economy where due to an increase in the demands, the organizations are putting extra pressure on their employees to work for extra hours which is resulting in some negative effects like cynicism and their decisions to quit the jobs etc but a less importance has been given to these issues regarding workers negativity and how to overcome these negative factors. Previous theories and researches have shown that the transformational leadership help in combating employees negativity and enhanced their psychological wellbeing, empowerment, self confidence and independence which results in subsequent engagement and satisfaction about job. (Dvir et al, 2002). According to Avolio et al, (2004) transformational leadership empowers and motivates employees to job commitment. And empowerment subsequently results in job satisfaction; it reduces work related strain and also enhances employees efficiency positively (Avey et al., 2008). It reduces the level of disappointment and anger in employees feelings regarding their job (Judge and Ilies, 2004). In the development of positive and effective organizational behaviour the recent studies (Avey et al., 2008) have shown that there is a close relationship among the psychological capital, performance and absenteeism (Avey et al., 2008). According to Harter, J, K., Schmidt, F, L., and Keys C, L, M., (2003) by demonstrating the individual consideration, intellectual stimulation and inspirational motivation the transformational leaders provide an opportunity to their employees where there is no presence of strain (too much challenges) or boredom (too little challenges) which affects adversely the quality and quantity of employee performance as well as their standard of life (Edwards, Caplan, Van Hrrison, 1998). In this kind of environment the workers face interesting and meaningful job tasks as Brim (1992) has called manageable difficulties and Csikszentmihalyi (1997) called as optimal states, it is the state where workers feel themselves as energetic, productive, growing, happy and engaged, and it is the situation where the demands are equal to or slightly above the level of resources (Waterman, 1993). By enhancing the workers emotional wellbeing and their satisfaction with work and workplace, transformational leader s promote the quality of individuals life as well as the productivity of entire community which consequently results in organizational outcomes in terms of best productivity, profitability, employee turnover and customer loyalty etc. Role of Empowerment: Empowerment is a main factor of the transformational leadership style in terms of work satisfaction and enhanced employees psychological wellbeing. The relationship of empowerment to job satisfaction is founded positive and it is related negatively to work strain (Avey, et al., 2008). In terms of a motivational means the empowerment consists of four cognitions like meaning, competence, self determination and impact. The meaning refers to the individuals personal standards to the value of work objective. Competence refers to the trust and confidence in the individuals mind regarding their ability to perform their organizational job tasks with personal skills. Self determination means the concept in the employees mind that they have some options and choices to start and regulate their job activities and strategies and the term impact refers to the level of individual influence on strategies and operating consequences. Role of Leadership, Empowerment and Positivity in combating employee negativity Figure 1. source from Avey et al (2008). Transformational leadership is positively related to empowerment (Kark et al., 2003, cited in Avey et al., 2008). Positive work outcomes like good performance and job satisfaction is positively related to the transformational relationship (Lowe et al., 1996, cited in Avey et al., 2008). Followers of the transformational leader found that they perform their job duties in most positive way and with most self confidence (Bono and Judge 2003). This gives further support to the theories that the followers of the transformational leaders are more empowered in term of decision making, greater autonomy and ownership etc. Transformational Leadership, Employee Attitude and Job Commitment: According to Kelloway, E, K and Barling Julian (2000) the concept that the transformational leadership which consists of the four important dimensions of Individual consideration, Intellectual stimulation, Inspirational motivation and Charisma is now well established in the literature (Avolio, 1999; Bass, 1985; 1990; 1998; Conger and Kanungo, 1987; House, 1977). Problems are also identified by various authors in the measurement of transformational leadership (e.g., Bycio et al., 1995; Carless, 1998) and there is enough support as well for the transformational leadership in relation to efficiency, production, quality and other attitude related to outcomes. The employees behaviour towards organization in terms of job commitment (Barling et al., 1996; Bycio et al., 1995), fairness sense in the organization (Pillai et al., 1999), trust in leader (Pillai et al., 1999; Podsakoff et al., 1995), satisfaction with job and with leader (Hater and Bass, 1988; Koh et al., 1995) etc are also linke d with the transformational leadership. Role of Leadership and Leader-member exchange: According to Jean Lee (2005) the most comprehensive theory is the multi-factor leadership theory that holds a range of leadership behaviours (Jean Lee, 2005). Transformational leaders enhance the relationship with their employees in such a way that prove more than an economic and social exchange. The current studies have revealed that the relationship of transformational leadership is related to effective efforts (Jean Lee, 2005), leaders satisfaction and trust (Jean Lee, 2005) and to the employees respect for the leader (Conger et al., 2000). The transformational leadership style creates a meaningful exchange, remove status barrier and physical distances between leader and employees. They also maximize the level of exchange with their employees (Jean Lee, 2005). By setting themselves as a role model for employees transformational leader enhance the level of trust and contribution because the employees feel that their leader is sacrificing and taking risks for the benefits of the gro up or team (Jean Lee, 2005). From the above data it can be observed that transformational leadership has a positive association with affect, loyalty, contribution and professional respect. Role of Emotional Intelligence: According to Barling, j, Slater, F and Kelloway (2000), as it is obvious from the literature (Barling et al., 2000) that the theory of transformational leadership has gained more scrutiny and we now know that there is a close relationship between transformational leadership and employees satisfaction (Barling et al., 2000), job commitment and trust ( Barling et al., 2000) and further more it is linked with work unit performance (Barling et al., 2000). Some present studies are now emphasising on another component Emotional Intelligence which may induce leaders to adopt transformational attitude (EQ). According to Salovey and Mayer (1990) and Golman (1995, cited in Barling et al., 2000) the emotional intelligence consists of five features such as knowledge of ones emotions, the way of managing them, self control over own emotions ability to delay indulgence, and to manage the relationship. Golman argues that high emotional intelligence in a leader lead to use transformational behaviou rs because they know and have control over their own emotions and represent themselves as a role model for their workers which develops their trust in and honour for the leader. Secondly leader with high emotional intelligence knows about other emotions and they can easily judge the limits to which followers expectations could be improved. Another important factor of individualized consideration is that with emotional intelligence the leader understands their workers needs and they react to them accordingly that result in managing and enhancing relationship positively. Conclusion: Transformational leaders play a vital role in the success of organizations. By demonstrating individual consideration, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation and charismatic behaviour they create an ideal environment for their followers and subordinates in which the purpose of the individuals and/or group comes together in the best interest of the organization. In addition they promote the wellbeing of their followers and subordinates in terms of physical and mental health which in turn develops the trust and their satisfaction about the job as well as trust among the employees and in the leader. In return under the transformational leadership and a healthy environment the organizations enjoy the benefits of their healthy workforce in terms of best performance, productivity and profitability.

Corporate Social Responsibility of Oil and Gas industry in Nigeria

Corporate Social Responsibility of Oil and Gas industry in Nigeria The main objective of this literature review is to attempt answering the research questions posed in our proposal because it is the focus of this research. In doing that, we shall review definitions, recapitulate and employs insights to the studies of previous prominent researchers on the topic particularly as it concerns MNOC in Nigeria. The work shall mainly consult books, journals and articles amongst others. With the general growth of CSR in many multinational companies, it is hardly surprising that CSR attracted considerable attention in recent years. In an attempt to digest CSR, studies have focused on the meaning, drivers and scope of CSR. While some researchers say it should not exist, others said it should be philanthropic, some said it is to enhance business, and others even think it regulatory compliance. Much of the earlier work emphasized two prominent definitions: philanthropy or business enhancement. Ojala (1994) said it has three major facets: complying with the law; setting and abiding by moral and ethical standards; and philanthropic giving. The first popular/acceptable definition of CSR is by Bowen (1953, p.6) He defined CSR as the obligations of businessmen to pursue those policies, to make those decisions, or to follow those lines of action which are desirable in terms of the objectives and values of our society. Since then, many definitions followed ranging from Carroll (1979), McWilliams and Siegel (2001), Whetten et al (2002), Maignan and Ferrell (2004) and Sriramesh et al. (2009) EUs Green paper on CSR defined it as a concept whereby companies integrate social and environmental concerns in their business operations and in their interaction with their stakeholders on a voluntary basis. The World Business Council for Sustainable Development defines CSR as the continuing commitment by business to behave ethically and contribute to economic development while improving the quality of life of its workers. . .as well as the local community and society at large. These definitions are important to this work as they see CSR as voluntary. To CSR advocates it is giving back to the land/people from whom it has taken so much, else poverty, unemployment, lop-sided development would continue to haunt Companies. Shankar Venkateswaran (2000) said that Islands of prosperity cannot survive in a sea of poverty the sea will ultimately engulf the islands. On the contrary, critics believe that CSR are used to distract public from asking questions posed by MNC operations. To them, CSR is not committed to sustainable development as claimed because activities of MNCs are contrary CSR. Example is Shells CSR led to pioneering in triple bottom line reporting, still there was a scandal of its misreporting of oil reserves in 2004. REVIEW OF THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS People view CSR differently, some advocate while others criticize. Peter Drucker (2004) is of the view that CSR should not exist at all. He said corporate social responsibility is a dangerous distortion from business principles. If you find an executive who wants to take on social responsibility, fire him. Fast. Others said that the organizations pay taxes to ensure that society and the environment are not adversely affected by business activities. This leads us to the first research question. What could be the main drivers of Corporate Social Responsibility by multinational companies? Is it to promote corporate image and benefit business or do they have positive responsibilities that add value to the communities they do business in? Motivations to engage in CSR are varies. Some are response to market forces, globalization, consumer and civil society pressures, etc. Some see it as a higher incentive to protect brands and investments (NEEDS). CSR drivers will be reviewed in three categories: economic, institutional and social drivers Economic Drivers There has been a lot of literature supporting that CSR is to enhance business. This proposition was clearly supported by Milton Friedman (1970). To him, a corporations purpose is to maximize returns to its shareholders and not to society as a whole. He said When I hear businessmen speak eloquently about the social responsibilities of business in a free-enterprise system, I am reminded of the wonderful line about the Frenchman who discovered at the age of 70 that he had been speaking prose all his life. The businessmen believe that they are defending free enterprise when they declaim that business is not concerned merely with profit but also with promoting desirable social ends; that business has a social conscience and takes seriously its responsibilities for providing employment, eliminating discrimination, avoiding pollution and whatever else may be the catchwords of the contemporary crop of reformers. In the same vein, McKibben Bill (2006) suggests that corporations which exist solely to maximize profits are unable to advance the interests of society as a whole. Also, Lord Justices Pill, May and Keane (1997) in proving that McDonalds business contradicts its social responsibility principles ruled that eating enough McDonalds food may make ones diet high in fat therefore increase the risk heart disease in McDonaldHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McDonalds_Restaurants_v_Morris__SteelHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McDonalds_Restaurants_v_Morris__Steels Restaurants v Steel HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McDonalds_Restaurants_v_Morris__SteelHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McDonalds_Restaurants_v_Morris__Steel Morris. For Johnson (1971p.54 cited in Vrabic, 2010) Social responsibility states that business carry out social programs to add profits to their organizations. He perceives CSR as long-run profit maximization not just activity to demonstrate ethical s tandards. Orlitzky, Schmidt, and Rynes (2004) in their study found a correlation between social/environmental performance and financial performance. Kurucz (2008, p.86), in his study identified four general types of business cases to support that CSR enhances business: cost and risk reduction, profit maximization and competitive advantage, reputation and legitimacy, and synergistic value creation. Cost and risk Reduction: Firm engage in CSR to reduce costs and risks to the firm, since stakeholders demands can present a potential threat to corporate financial goals (Kurucz, 2008, p. 88). Competitive Advantage: CSR can be used to gain competitive advantage over industry rivals (Kurucz, 2008, p. 89). It is also used as a lobbying strategy for tighter regulations that leads to higher market values especially in oil companies with heavy polluting activities. (Porter 1991, cited in Vrabic, 2010) Reputation and Legitimacy: CSR is made for strategic reasons and are designed to extend legitimacy and enhance corporate reputation, to maintain its legitimacy, repair or defend its lost or threatened legitimacy (Kurucz, 2008, p. 91). Miles and Covin (2000 cited in Vrabic, 2010) opined that environmental stewardship creates reputational advantage that enhances marketing and financial performance. To Brown and Dacin (1997), negative social reputation can have detrimental effect on product evaluations and positive social reputation can enhance product evaluations. This could be seen from the boycott of Shell gas station by European consumers due to Shells attempt to dispose Brent Spar oil platform in the Atlantic Ocean and the consequent 50% decline sales (Neuger, 1995 cited in Vrabic, 2010). Synergistic Value Creation Approaches advocating synergistic value creation are focused seeking opportunities to reveal, relate, and synthesize the interests of diverse set of stakeholders. Some studies, however, have taken a different approach. Lerner and Fryxell, (1988 cited in Vrabic, 2010)) argue that firms incur unnecessary costs that does not add value and reduce profitability by increasing social performance. Institutional Much as there may be economic drivers of CSR, to serve long term national interests, Governments have a strong interest in promoting CSR initiatives mostly through regulation to complement their environmental and social programs (Mazurkiewicz, 2004a). Prominent CSR researchers consider regulation as a natural adjunct to improving the social performance of business, contingent only on the correct design of market incentives (Porter and van der Linde 2000, p. 156, cited in Vrabic, 2010). In Europe, many countries have introduced legislation to mandate environmental reporting for corporations (Haigh and Jones, 2006). Also, Inter-governmental organizations like EU, UN and OECD promote CSR through various policies that encourage companies to voluntarily engage in more sustainable and socially responsible conduct of business. In the oil sector, (Frynas, 2009, p.50 52) argue that decisions are becoming politicized especially with joint venture agreements. With joint venture, Government owns shares, oil, grants licenses, provides regulatory framework, and defines respective rights and responsibilities of investors. Social Factors Moon and Vogel, (2008, cited in Vrabic, 2010) argue that in the global market, MNCs often appeared to be as powerful as states, yet unaccountable as Governments and international institutions most times create regulatory vacuum to control their actions. This vacuum the NGOs normally fill by questioning MNCs actions (Held and McGrew, 2002, cited in Vrabic, 2010). NGOs demand that companies follow the conventions and agreements signed within UN, respect basic environmental regulations adopted by western governments or regional organizations (Bandell, 2004). The second question is Why are there proliferations of youth militancy and movement, protests, invasion of oil facilities and abduction of oil workers, intense dispute and conflicts against the MNOCs in the Niger Delta despite the CSR? The problems between the oil companies and host communities are best described by Watts, (2004:198) as the story of development and counter development working with and against one another in complex and contradictory ways. The crises and hostility according to Eweje (2007) arise sometimes because indigenes feel they dont get enough social and economic infrastructures/assistance from the MNOCs. The CSR seem to escalate the crisis. This is because either by omission or commission, CSR activities and processes impact negatively on local communities, often outweighing the positive benefits CSR brings (Watts, 2004). Christian Aid (2004) says that despite Shells claims about honesty, integrity and respect for people, the oil company has failed to bring about change in the delta. It also confirmed that some of the acclaimed schools, hospitals and other social amenities have been abandoned or did not meet the needs of the communities they were meant to support. It found evidence that Shells clean-up of oil spills and repair of pipelines in Nigeria is scandalously inadequate and would never be tolerated in Europe and North America. This failure of CSR added to the bad feeling between the local community and Shell (Andrew Pendleton Christian aid report). Sometimes oil companies carry propaganda by way of CSR. Example is the CSR that followed Ogoni crisis to redeem Shells image especially with several publications and propogandas.58 Oil companies sometimes connive with the state to be violent, using private security and state agents who are often overactive in their tasks of protecting oil installations and workers. This leads to harassment, intimidation and suppression of environmental development and rights activities. Sometimes crises arise because of oil spills. Nembe indigene 3 (cited in Tuodolo 2007) said Oil activities cause serious environmental problem. Oil spills; discharge of drilling and production waste; and gas flaringà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. The negative impact of these on the peoples health and livelihood is enormous: All of us in this community are fishermen à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ there is always spillage à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ have destroyed our marine life and our occupationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. To show Shells negligence and non-sustainability, it spilled 14,000 tons of oil into the Niger Delta in 2009 while that of 2008 is between 2,200-8,000 and a daily flaring of about 604 million per day (SPDC, 2009). On their part, Shell CEO Peter Voser(2010, reported in Guardian newspapers) said that Nigeria, especially the Niger Delta, remains a very challenging place in which to operate. Security issues and sabotage are constant threats to our people, assets and the environment. Even when the crises arise, oil companies respond when and how they like. They sometimes pay compensation and initiate community projects, but do not enhance their social responsibility credentials (Omotala 2010). He said One, the oil companies à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ are known for paying compensations that are far lower than international minimum standards. They are also reputed for the avoidance of payments of compensation on frivolous grounds such as attributing oil spills to sabotage for which they may not be culpable. In some instances, they only pay compensation after protracted court cases that are usually very costly to the host community. Sometimes the development does not worth it even when they are implemented. Idemudia (2009) said CSR developments must protect, preserve and conserve the environments upon which the livelihood of rural inhabitants depends to be meaningful and sustainable. MNOCs are being accused of living by their words. Example, a community leader asserts that most of these developments are only reflected on their books, not on the ground and even then it is not based on the priorities set by the communities but what suits their public relation image of the company ( Eweje, 2007). All this culminated together causes the rising violence, militancy, protests, invasion of oil facilities, pipeline vandalization and abduction of oil workers in the region which sometimes swings both the oil companies and Government to actions. Eweje (2007) concludes that no matter how laudable the CSR initiatives are if the host communities do not feel that the projects will create a sustainable economic, social and environmental development the conflict and unrest in the Niger Delta will continue. There have been questions of whether CSR differ in developing and developed countries. Amaeshi et al. (2006) in their work asked if there is a Nigerian brand of CSR or is it an imitation of western CSR practices. NEEDS XV argue that socio-culturally framed and that the socio-cultural characteristics of Nigeria are unique and as such, the practice of CSR would mainly be shaped by the socio-economic conditions in which these firms operate. To NEEDS, CSR in Nigeria would be aimed towards poverty alleviation, health care provision, infrastructure development, education, etc, not necessarily reflection of popular western standard like consumer protection, fair trade, green marketing, climate change, social responsible investments, etc. Oil spills are more in Nigeria and even where there is, prompt actions are not taken (Christian Aid 2004). Considering this point, Frynas, (2005) said that where government fails to effectively make and enforce environmental regulation, MNOC only voluntarily care to avoid oil spills and may be label it CSR. CSR today looks more of regulatory compliance in developed countries with more effective government. In Nigeria, Shell admitted that its approach to CSR causes community disorder (SPDC, 2005:28), yet Shell has not changed the practices despites its claims to CSR. While the more popular opinion like (Frynas, Christian Aid) is that there is double standard, sometimes MNOCs act the same way in both developing and developed countries. This can be justified by signing of collaborative agreements with Colombian with the Colombian Defence Ministry to provide $2.2 million on top of the mandatory war tax in 1995 by BP (Muttitt and Marriott, 2002). BP was accused of forming its own army and hiring security people with histories of human rights abuses and even murder (Beder, 2002, cited in Vrabic, 2010). Investigations revealed that BPs security firm, trained the Colombian police in counterinsurgency and intelligence techniques used against local communities, and also provided weapons to the 16th Battalion of the Colombian army, which then conducted a massacre (Gillard, 1999 cited in Vrabic, 2010). There was fierce stakeholder pressure on BP and BP evaluated its social and environmental strategies (Frynas, 2009, p. 22-23). Some years after, a senior BP manager admitted: Weve learned from our mistakesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. In Colombia we were accused of getting too close to the army and police in order to protect our operations. We listened, approached the Human Rights Watch for advice, and then organized new security arrangements (Rice, 2002, p. 135). Could it be safe to say CSR in developing countries are not at its best and if so is overlap, ineffective coordination and communication, absence of regulatory framework, partnership with Government/local communities major problems hindering the effective implementation of CSR projects? In Nigeria, Rauscher (1992, cited in Frynas 1998) says that Governments sought to attract foreign investors by permitting ecological dumping, for the sake of economic development. Ite (2004) also argued that the government has continued to renegade on its commitment that it becomes almost impossible for the CSR investments by the oil firms to contribute positively to their host communities. Oil companies blame oil pollution on political instability like sabotage because there is no comprehensive legislation on compensation payments to communities in Nigeria (Frynas 1998). But Walter and Ugelow (1979) in their work said that Nigerias environmental policy is been tolerant to corporate polluters for a long time compare to international standard. Frynas argues that there is a direct relationship between state welfare provision and the need for CSR initiatives. To him, greater social and environmental responsibilities should be taken in countries where the government does not have effective mechanisms of regulation and provision of public goods. He cited Nigeria as his example. Patricia Werhane (2007) on her own part cited corruption as a serious problem hindering CSR implementation in developing countries. She said A big challenge facing multinational corporations is how they should respond to local corruption. Both Shell Oil and Exxon/Mobile sought to carry out drilling operations at sites plagued by corrupt local and national governmentsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. (Patricia Werhane 2007) This is also Watts view when he said What passes as development is usually contracts and bribes-so-called cash payments-with influential traditional elites, orchestrated through ineffective or corrupt community liason officers (Watts, 2004). CSR ineffective coordination manifests in commercialized conflicts between individuals and groups who always fight over the benefits; community funds for development are mismanaged, misappropriated, and embezzled or shared by community leaders or clique (Watts, 2004). Social disorders like arms possession, increasing illiteracy, criminality, lawlessness and the disintegration of tradition and culture now became order of the day. CSR should be considered more as a corporate moral responsibility, and limit the reach of CSR by focusing more on direct impacts of the organization (Patricia Werhane 2007). It is suggested that for CSR to worth its onion, there should be better governmental and international regulation and enforcement, rather than voluntary measures. This is EU approach. For example, Denmark on 16 December 2008, adopted a bill making it mandatory for the 1100 largest Danish companies, investors and state-owned companies to include information on CSR in their annual financial reports. In Nigeria, FEC approved CSR policy on 21st May 2008. Also, Akwa Ibom state enacted oil and gas law stipulating social responsibility of oil companies. To Christian Aid (2004:2) the only way to instill honesty and integrity into business practice is to strip CSR of its voluntarism and enact laws that spell out minimum social and environmental standards that companies must meet. Jettison corporate social responsibility: make it corporate social accountability, because for too long CSR has served as merely a branch of PR and in some cases as the only spurts of development activity by large companies. CONCLUSION This work had defined CSR and explored the fundamental drivers of CSR. The observation is that today CSR is a consequence of various factors together interactions of various social groups and NGOs, state institutions and self promoting economic motives. Three main drivers were seen as the main promoters of CSR, and one could conclude that CSR is more of business strategy than social. In the Niger Delta the continued crises could be attributed to the fact that MNOSs do their things in their own way without actually touching indigenes lives. They employ any means to protect their business interest As regards the standard, MNOC adopt different standard for different stroke that is why this work is of the view that there should be laws guiding CSR not just MNOCs doing what they think is suitable to them. This work also found out that there are structural factors, systemic failures, absence of enabling environment hinder positive impact of CSR. Although the popular view from this review is that MNOCs engage in CSR to enhance business therefore there should be CSR regulations, it cannot be ruled out that regulations especially stringent ones and host communities problems will discourage the MNOC who may decide to move their investment to a more friendly business environment. This clearly gives room for more research.

J.P. Morgan Essay -- essays research papers

J.P. Morgan   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When people talk about J.P. Morgan, they often refer to one man. The J.P. Morgan dynasty was in fact a combined effort of three generations of Morgans. In 1838, American businessman George Peabody opened the London merchant banking firm that would establish the roots of the House of Morgan. In 1854, Junius S. Morgan became the partner of George Peabody and eventually took over the firm in 1864, renaming it J.S. Morgan & Co. At the age of twenty four, J. Pierpont Morgan inherited his father’s business, renamed the business to J.P. Morgan & Co., and made a point to consolidate the firm’s American and European interests. Under Pierpont’s authority, J.P. Morgan & Co. had a great impact on enterprises such as railroads, steel, mining, and other utilities that helped establish the United States as an industrial power. The personality of J. Peirpont Morgan is best described in a statement he made to the U.S. Congressional banking committee in 1912. à ¢â‚¬Å"The first thing is character†¦before money or anything else. Money cannot buy it†¦because a man I do not trust could not get money from me on all the bonds in Christendom.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It should also be noted that in 1868, the Paris banking firm Drexel, Harjes & Co. was formed. Pierpont became a partner in 1871 and the firm was later renamed Morgan, Harjes & Co.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Five years after his father’s death, ...

Threats to Marriage :: Social Issues, Single Mothers

Today there are many threats to marriage and family; and everyone seems to have an opinion on how to create it; fix it; repair it or dissolve it. We no longer look to marriage with dreamy visions of a spouse and the endless bounty of the life and family before us. â€Å"We† seem to want many of the benefits a marriage brings without making the commitment. In the 1700’s marriage was a commitment between families, which was taken seriously. There were marriage bonds with monies paid and then the court order for the marriage; and in other colonies this time-revered process might have 17 distinctive steps. http://www.austincc.edu/jdikes/Marriage%20Ways%20ALL.pdf Ever since Dan Quayle used the television character â€Å"Murphy Brown† in his June 1992 speech as â€Å"encouraging family disintegration† the government has continued to make, â€Å"marital status and family structure†¦.major themes of political rhetoric and government policy† (Page 518). Quayle also remarked that, â€Å"marriage is probably the best anti-poverty program of all† (American Vision and Values, Page 179). Here was one politician who believed the country needed better role models and a return to the values on which our country was founded. Dafoe Whitehead suggests these topics are perceived as an attack on single mothers; and are met with â€Å"anger and denial† (American Vision and Values, Page 182). Rather than attack a single family structure - single mothers, consider the outcomes produced by non-traditional structures. Kay Hymowitz believes â€Å"we are becoming a nation of separate and unequal families that threatens to last in the foreseeable future† (Page 560). This will have consequences on every aspect of our society. Marriage, before children, was the given status quo for the pro-family period of the 1950’s. At that time, divorce and illegitimacy was  ½ of today’s rate, marriage was universally praised and family was hailed as the most basic institution. The 1960’s brought disruptive social and cultural forces. The divorce rate soared and illegitimacy increased 22%. In the 1970’s we see where women could now afford a family without a spouse. It seems the choice to work equally with men devalued the homemaker role of previous decades (Graglia, Carolyn Domestic Tranquility Page 540). These choices were centered on career goals and achieving motherhood; without truly addressing the needs of family and children. And yet many single mothers hover around the poverty line – not nearly as glamorous as â€Å"Murphy Brown† made it seem.

Martin Luther King and Abraham Lincoln Essay

Abraham Lincoln and Martin Luther King were two very similar orators who wanted to achieve almost identical goals. Abraham Lincoln was the president of the United States and the leader of the Anti-Slavery Republican Party. His speech was delivered on the nineteenth November 1863 mat Gettysburg during the ‘Great Civil War’. His primary objective was to abolish slavery and he did this partly by indirectly telling his audience, such as, purposely forgetting his status and addressing his ‘Fellow countrymen’ with intense respect which consequently reflects his beliefs in equality. Martin Luther King, a Baptist Minister, was the leader of the Civil Rights Movement. He performed his speech almost one hundred years after Lincoln’s speech on the twenty eighth August at Lincoln’s memorial. King believed in egalitarianism and he also wanted to end segregation; this is what both orators set out to do. Lincoln and King have similar purposes for their speeches but targeted them in different ways. Influenced by the great legend Mahatma Gandhi who also himself was a non-violent freedom fighter, King wanted to gain black people’s freedom the same way as Gandhi, in a non-violent protest. Lincoln had a similar contractual obligation. He was to abolish slavery. He conveyed this in his concise speech ‘for the people’. Both King and Lincoln have implicit messages in their speeches. Lincoln, apart from trying to abolish slavery, also promoted ‘The honored dead’ and making people understand what their ‘fathers’ had done for them and what is left for them to do. King, on the other hand, apart from trying to gain black people’s freedom, evokes a feeling of disgust by the use of metaphors to induce an image of the ‘governor’s lips’, ‘dripping with the words of interposition and nullification’ which evokes a sin ister feeling within the audience which King hoped to achieve as it would divert the ‘Negro’s’ mind and evoke a feeling f disgust towards the government. King targets his audience cleverly. He explicitly targets the majority of the black people, who still, ‘one hundred years later’, and ‘must face the tragic fact that the Negro is still not free’. This clearly shows that King is telling his audience that even today after ‘one hundred years’ the ‘Negro’ are, ‘ still not free’. He implicitly talks to the ‘governor’s’; concurrently he is talking to the ‘Negro’ community by changing their views towards the ‘governor’s’. King is trying to provide a vivid reflection for the ‘Governor’s’ to make them realize what they are doing and how much better they could make if they abolish slavery and put an end to segregation. Alternatively, Lincoln’s audience was probably affluent white people from Northern US. Although King had the advantage of the TV, Radio, media and Microphone, Lincoln’s speech wa s just as well heard as King’s speech. The use of emotive words engages both King and Lincoln’s audience. King unifies his audience at the ‘table of brotherhood’ which, apart from unifying the audience also has a religious impact on the black people as they were extremely religious and an indirect reference to Jesus and his disciples would have caused immense unity between the audience. This metaphor apart from providing unity, it also is a very peaceful metaphor as it includes everybody. In contrast, Lincoln believes that their ‘nation’ is ‘under God’. These religious references amalgamate the audience and make them think that they are doing this for ‘God’ and that they are ‘God’s children’. Both orators structure their speeches in similar ways. The speech is structured in chronological order as it bequeaths a rhythmic feel. Firstly they talk about what their ‘fathers’ had to go through to get them this far, then they move into the present where both speech makers clearly make it noticeable that they talking about ‘now’. King introduces his future ingeniously by stating that he has ‘a dream’, which circuitously shows what he wants it to be like in the near future for his ‘four little children’. This poignant language also evokes sympathy not just for King but also for people around them who are going through the same traumatic experience. Different tones area applied by both orators to conjure up diverse feelings. Lincoln uses a sincere tone to compliment his feeling to abolish slavery when he addresses his ‘fellow countrymen’. On the other hand, King uses a powerful voice to ‘Let freedom ring’ and to strengthen the speech to emphasize his beliefs of ‘freedom’. Lincoln also has a sense of vigor in his tone which shows how the soldiers ‘nobly advance’ and which portrays the strength of his own voice as well corroborating other people simultaneously. Religious and biblical manners are used by both speechmakers, which has a great impact on the nation at the same time, as persons at that time, especially black public were very religious. Lincoln refers to the people being ‘under God’ which would convey a thought of great expectations in the minds of the listeners. King says that the ‘glory of the Lord shall be revealed’, which meant that if they work together, then they can create a better world for themselves and for their children, so if they stick together and protest they will see the reward. Both raconteurs coerce their audience by the use of different strategies. They both use analogous strategies to portray their views. Lincoln and King use the same strategies; however, King uses them extensively. Both use the rule of three but King take one-step further and converts it into repetition. When King repeats ‘Let freedom ring’, it emphasizes how much the black ‘community’ wants ‘freedom to ring’. However, Lincoln repeats two words in particular, ‘great’ and ‘nation’. The repetition of ‘great’ show the importance that can be achieved out of a ‘great civil war’ to form a bond between the people present and to say, if we are a ‘nation so conceived and so dedicated’ then we can tolerate the hardship and pain of war. The use of emotive language evokes a more personal feeling. King refers to his children to add a sympathetic feel to his speech. He also uses biblical references such as when ‘the day when all of God’s children will be able to sing with new meaning’ keeps his audience interested by implicitly saying it will be done and it grants hope to his audience. On the other hand, Lincoln’s use of emotive language is more biblical rather than personal. The only reference to a more personal feeling was when he talked about their ‘fathers’ to call to mind a nostalgic upshot and to say how disrespectful it would be to go against the equality that our ‘fathers’ created ‘this continent a new nation’. King and Lincoln use alliteration in the same way. King uses alliteration to show ‘a desert state sweltering sweltering’, which too, portrays the immense heat of injustice. An onomatopoeic effect to give a sense of power to the ‘government of the people, by the people, for the people’ due to the repetition of the ‘P’. Martin Luther King and Abraham Lincoln intentionally use language to persuade their audience to fight freedom in a non-violent disapproval. Both orators take advantage of the uses of language to achieve their primary aim. Lincoln juxtaposes the ‘civil war’ with ‘great’ to encourage the greatness of war and what can be achieved out of this battle to abolish slavery. King juxtaposes ‘the dark and desolate valley of segregation to the sunlit path of racial justice’. Apart from being a metaphor, alliteration is also inserted and an expectant pause is added to let the audience reflect on what King had just said. Both speechmakers, to transmit a compassionate emotion use emotive language. In conclusion to my analysis Martin Luther King’s speech was the most effective only to the obvious reason that his was of a longer length so it contained more within it. Lincoln’s speech was nearly as good as King’s speech because he also interleaved messages inside his meaning which as a consequent added depth to his speech and made his speech almost as superior as King’s. King’s speech was good too for the reason that he could express his views openly as he had more time as well as more technology to reach more people.

Political Poetry by Margaret Atwood

â€Å"Backdrop addresses cowboy† by Margaret Atwood Creating a masterful poetic movement through the American mythos, Atwood skewers â€Å"manifest destiny† by embodying the voice of the Other, the discarded â€Å"I am. † Writing political poetry that artfully confronts dominant ideology – thus exposing the motivation and effects of misrepresentation – is a difficult challenge. The process can easily be derailed by temptations to write strident, overly didactic verse that elevates sentiment above nuance and craft.While passion is certainly important, it is the poem itself that transforms political intent into a dynamic act of oppositional literature. To be effective as a statement, it must first be effective as a poem. In â€Å"Backdrop addresses cowboy,† Margaret Atwood delivers a scathing indictment of imperialist power that, through its elegant craft and conceptual framework, is also a breathtakingly vibrant poem. The core message, a poten t denunciation of reckless power from the perspective of those who suffer its consequences, is simultaneously unequivocal and oblique.Though Atwood’s indictment is readily apparent, close reading reveals a brilliant poetic foundation comprised of nuanced language, double-meanings, and a metaphorical structure that satirically lambasts American exceptionalism by skewering the individualist ‘cowboy' myth with imagery from its own construction. In short, Atwood's poem succeeds as a political statement because she allows the demands of exceptional poetry to drive its articulation. From the outset, Atwood chooses language that economically expands the meaning of each phrase.For example, â€Å"Starspangled,† the poem’s first word, focuses a personification of ‘cowboy mentality’ into a subtle critique of nationalist manipulation. In addition, other connotations come to mind, like â€Å"starry-eyed,† or the gaudiness of â€Å"spangles. † Even elements internal to the American anthem apply: bombs bursting, a nation under siege, victory against all odds. Though speculative, a reading like this is supported by the poem’s representation of a cowboy who violently protects his own interests in an imagined landscape filled with heroes and villains.Regarded as a heroic figure by the myth of manifest destiny, he is conversely seen as a reckless tyrant by those who suffer the effects of his violence. The first stanza reveals a comic figure – â€Å"Starspangled cowboy† sauntering through his child-like fantasy while pulling a prop from the Hollywood simulacrum that supports his myth. Atwood complicates this image in the second stanza when she introduces violence to her â€Å"almost- /silly† characterization of the mythical â€Å"West. Using a line break to accentuate the transition, she plays the impact of a stand-alone line against the expanded meaning of its grammatical context. Isolated, line s ix (â€Å"you are innocent as a bathtub†) relates directly to the opening stanza’s child-like caricature, forming an aphoristic trope that is both interesting and oddly mundane. Accentuated by the break, the line’s reading adds dramatic nuance when its sentence unfolds into a broader meaning: â€Å"you are innocent as a bathtub / filled with bullets. Contrasting the ironic character of opposed readings (innocent and not-at-all-innocent) within the space of shared words, Atwood foreshadows an overall conceptual structure in which â€Å"backdrop† refers both to the simulacrum of Hollywood sets and to the genuine environment of a beleaguered world. Despite its obvious quantitative reference, â€Å"bathtub / filled with bullets† also infers a Hollywood cliche – the bullet-riddled bathtub – that reinforces a theme inherent to the myth: if you’re not ready to fight, they’ll get you when you’re vulnerable.An inference l ike this reflects back on the subtle statement of the earlier use of â€Å"starspangled†: a nation that imagines itself as besieged can use that camouflage as justification for militarism and imperialist expansion. Again, supported by the poem, these significations demonstrate a complicated structure that works internal logic to frame an effective (and damning) political statement. Oppositions and Conceptual Structure This is a poem about power and disenfranchisement.It employs oppositions as a conceptual device to turn manifest destiny on its head. Exploding the cowboy myth by use of its own imagery and overarching theme of heroes and villains, Atwood draws complex parallels to American exceptionalism, a black and white ideology that drains color from alternative perspectives. By use of satire, she effectively removes the shroud that justifies questionable actions as being both inevitable and heroic. As stated in the title, the voice of this poem is that of â€Å"backdropâ €  (i. . the environment of scenes portrayed by the myth and recontextualized by the poem) addressing â€Å"cowboy. † The expanding focus on â€Å"cowboy† and his violent milieu reaches a pivot in the fifth stanza when the Hollywood backdrop is fully exposed, and the speaker finally reveals herself. Using the word â€Å"ought† (implying mandatory obligation), she questions her expected role on the set (passive, â€Å"hands clasped / in admiration†) while asserting, â€Å"I am elsewhere. Spoken as â€Å"backdrop,† and expanded in the final stanzas, this statement implies a conceptual flip wherein â€Å"backdrop† becomes subject, inhabiting an environment desecrated by the reckless actions of a transient â€Å"cowboy†. Simulacra In the essay â€Å"Simulacra and Simulation,† philosopher Jean Baudrillard states, â€Å"The simulacrum is never that which conceals the truth–it is the truth which conceals that there is none . The simulacrum is true. † While Baudrillard perhaps overstates his case, the point is clear: actions instigated and justified by myth play an undeniable role in shaping both material and social reality.Applying this concept to Atwood’s poem, manifest destiny can be seen acting as ‘truth’ in its own regard – concealing no truth, because instead it has replaced truth with artifice. Accordingly, â€Å"cowboy† becomes backdrop to the postmodern world from which Atwood addresses the genuine existence of other, more substantial truths conveniently denied by myth. The Alternative Power of Effective Verse As representation itself, replete with borrowed imagery and the detritus of experienced consequence, this poem enacts a self-reflexive reversal of the social forces it speaks against.With a vocabulary full of bullets, Atwood crafts a poem that stands the test of both ‘truth' and time – yet does so peacefully, through an act of oppositi onal literature. Whether her poem is construed as feminist, environmentalist, post-colonial, or just-plain-political (from a Canadian perspective), its verity is affirmed by continued relevance. Written in the mid-seventies, it speaks just as powerfully in our current era. In terms of effective poetics, how good is that?